The Kingdom of Bahrain is a monarchy that has been ruled by the Al-Khalifa family since the late 18th century. The King is head of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. The country held its first national elections in nearly 3 decades in 2002. The King appoints a Cabinet of ministers, in which all strategic ministries are held by members of the royal family. The bicameral National Assembly has a 40-member elected Council of Representatives and a 40-member appointed Shura Council. Women have the right to vote and run for public office. They accounted for 52% of voters in municipal elections, but none were elected in municipal or Council elections. The King may veto laws or dissolve the Councils at his discretion. A Christian and a Jewish member were appointed to the Shura Council. 21 Shura Council members are Shi'a Muslims and 17 are Sunni. 5 of the 20 Cabinet ministers are Shi'a. The King can amend the constitution and propose, ratify and promulgate laws.

Elections were deemed to meet electoral standards, but concerns were expressed about discrepancies in the population make-up of some electoral districts. Political parties are prohibited in favour of "political societies," whose composition is prescribed in detailed legislation. The judiciary is nominally independent, but courts are subject to government pressure. Judges are appointed by royal decree.

Islam is the official religion, and anti Islamic writings are prohibited. The dual civil and Shari'a legal system uses a mix of British common law, Shari'a and tribal law. Non-Muslims use civil courts while Shari'a courts have jurisdiction over cases involving Muslims, both citizens and non-citizens. Shari'a courts are divided into Sunni and Shi'a systems.

Despite evidence of a climate of greater openness, reports indicate a lack of transparency in government affairs. Impunity remains a problem. The Bahrain Centre for Human Rights was dissolved after it held a seminar on poverty in which the Prime Minister was criticised.

A controversial press law is enforced at the government's discretion. It restricts freedom of speech and press and provides prison sentences for anyone criticising Islam or the King or inciting actions to undermine state security. As a result, censorship and self-censorship exist. The government owns and operates all local radio and television stations. It lifted its ban on correspondents from Al Jazeera but maintains control over the selection of the locally based Al Jazeera correspondents. Government owned television does not cover cases of human rights abuses.

Internet use is restricted, and telephone calls and personal correspondence, including email, are subject to monitoring. Sophisticated police informer networks operate in the country. More than one third of the population uses the Internet.

Bahrain is a destination country for women and men who migrate legally but fall victim to conditions of sexual servitude, debt bondage or conditions of work that constitute involuntary servitude. The government does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking.

Bahraini law does not criminalise homosexual relationships between consenting adults aged 21 and over. The adult prevalence rate of persons with HIV/AIDS is reported at 0.2%, with fewer than 600 people said to be living with HIV/AIDS.

Children born to Bahraini mothers and non-citizen fathers are not entitled to citizenship and so are denied the educational and health care benefits and other rights of citizens. Public education for citizen children under age 15 is free and compulsory. Free education includes tuition, transport books, materials, furniture and equipment. The Education Act now imposes fines on parents whose children fail to attend to school. Most students complete secondary school. Child marriage is rare. Literacy is comparatively high, with 89.1% of those over age 15 being able to read and write (91.9% of males, 85% of females).

A 3-year programme starts at age 3. 48% of children enrolled in ECE are girls. 99% of ECE is private, and all 802 ECE teachers are women. The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 22 : 1.

Primary education begins at age 6 and continues to age 11. The Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) is 97% (98% of boys, 95% of girls). At this level 23% of education is private. 12% of primary age children repeat a grade level. Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 90% reach the last grade of primary school, and of the latter 79% enrol in secondary school. There are 4,953 primary teachers (76% female). The PTR is 16 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 12 and lasts for 6 years. The NER is 90% (87% of boys, 93% of girls). 22% of students study in technical vocational education. 16% of secondary education is private. There are 5,198 secondary teachers, 2,650 (55% female) in lower secondary and 2,548 (53% female) in upper secondary education. The PTR is 14 : 1 in lower secondary and 11 : 1 in upper secondary education.

At the University of Bahrain the President is a woman and 60% of the students are women, although some complain that admissions policies discriminate against qualified female applicants. Admissions are now to be based on published high school exam results intended to make the process more transparent.

In all, 18,524 students study in tertiary institutions, giving a Gross Enrolment Ratio of 34%. There are 832 academics (36% female) teaching at this level. There are 1,331 foreign students studying in Bahrain, mainly from the Arab States (1,202), South Asia (98), North America and Europe (13), East Asia (6), Sub-Saharan Africa (6) and Central and Eastern Europe (3). At the same time 2,108 students from Bahrain study abroad, mainly in the UK (871), the USA (444), Saudi Arabia (153), Jordan (147) and Australia (122).

The law protects the rights of persons with disabilities. In 2003 the ILO estimated that persons with disabilities accounted for 4% of the population. More recent statistics are not yet available. Reports do not indicate discrimination against persons with disabilities in education or in access to health care. Children with learning disabilities, physical handicaps, speech impediments and Down Syndrome are enrolled in specialised education programmes in public schools. Centres exist for the treatment of the blind and the education of deaf children. Little education is available for incarcerated juveniles.

The law does not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status to persons who meet the definition in the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol. The government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees. Reports do not provide information on the availability of education for refugee children.

Shi'a Muslims constitute 70% of citizens, but Sunnis predominate politically and economically. The royal family is Sunni, and the armed forces and security services contain very few Shi'a. Discrimination against the majority Shi'a population is reported as a problem. Shi'a citizens are allowed to hold posts in the forces but not positions of significance.

Internet forums contain complaints of discrimination in public sector jobs and positions at the university. Although the percentage of Shi'a students is close to the share of Shi'a in the population, only about 40% of university faculty are Shi'a. Shi'a citizens tend to be employed in lower-paid, less-skilled jobs. Education and other public services are reported to be poorer in Shi'a villages than in Sunni urban communities.

Although there are no formal restrictions, academic freedom is limited. Academics avoid contentious political issues, and the University of Bahrain does not have a political science program. The University's hiring and admissions policies are reported to favour Sunnis. The Political Rights Law of 2002 regulates election campaigns and prohibits "election meetings" at worship centres, universities, schools, government buildings and public institutions. Self-censorship is practised, and communications are often censored. Informants operate clandestinely at all levels of society, including universities.

The King appointed 6 women to the Shura Council, and women hold 9% of senior civil service posts. The first female Minister of Health was appointed in 2004. Initiatives have been taken to train women for future elections. Women have the right to equality and to equal benefits including education. They make up 17% of the work force and 40% of the public service. Discrimination occurs in the form of wage inequality and denial of advancement. A new law grants 42 days of maternity leave (not including weekends) for women working in the public sector, whereas the private sector provides 45 days of maternity leave including weekends.

Sexual harassment is prohibited but remains problematic, especially for foreigners working as domestics. Women's legal rights vary according to Shi'a or Sunni interpretation of Shari'a law. Women can initiate a divorce, but religious courts may refuse the request. Women may own and inherit property and may represent themselves in legal matters. Mothers are granted custody of daughters under age 9 and sons under age 7, after which custody reverts to the father who makes all legal decisions for the child until age 21. A non-citizen woman loses custody of her children if she divorces their citizen father.

Legislation does not address violence against women, and spousal abuse is reported, particularly in poorer communities. Few women seek legal redress for violence. Foreign women who work as domestics are reported to be beaten or sexually abused by employers and recruiting agents. Laws do not prohibit female genital mutilation.

The minimum age for employment is 14. Children aged 14 to 16 may not be employed in hazardous conditions or at night and may not work more than 6 hours a day. The law prohibits forced or compulsory labour by children, but such practices occur, particularly among domestic servants and those working illegally. Though child labour legislation is enforced in the formal sector, child labour outside this sector is less effectively monitored and is common in family operated businesses.

Workers have the right to form and join trade unions, except members of the military. 47 private-sector trade unions represent 19% of the work force. All unions are required to be members of the General Federation of Bahrain Trade Unions, which is affiliated with International Trade Union Confederation and the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions. Only 1 union per establishment may be created, and unions are prohibited from engaging in political activities. Since 2003 civil servants have been able to unionise. 5 public sector unions have been established but are not yet recognised by the government. Union members are now compensated for time taken to attend to union duties. The right to organise and bargain collectively and the right to strike are recognised, including in export processing zones.

Unskilled foreign workers have become indentured servants and often lack the knowledge necessary to change employment. Some employers are cited as withholding salaries from foreign workers for long periods of time and refusing to grant them permission to leave the country. Domestic servants work 12 or 16 hours a day with little time off and are subjected to verbal and physical abuse.

There is no official minimum wage, but public and private sectors are instructed to pay workers no less than US$398 (150 dinars) a month, though compliance is not monitored. This does not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Acceptable conditions of work for adult workers include a maximum of 48 hours in the work week. There are approximately 50,000 foreign housemaids working in the country; labour laws do not apply to domestic workers.