The presidential election in December 2005 was the second multi-candidate election in the Republic of Kazakhstan since independence in 1991. Besides the incumbent, 4 other candidates were registered, offering some choice. Despite the incumbent's claimed intention to make the election process transparent, all candidates did not have equal opportunities to reach the electorate. State authorities were instructed to ensure free and fair elections, but authorities became involved in the campaign and an atmosphere of harassment and intimidation prevailed. Pressure was exerted on some state and private company employees and students to vote for the incumbent. The result was a second 7-year term of office for the incumbent in an election that fell short of international standards. The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe cited media bias in favour of pro-administration parties.

The bicameral Parliament consists of the Mazhilis (assembly) and the Senate. The President heads the legislature, the judiciary and regional and local governments. The President appoints and dismisses the Prime Minister and Cabinet, judges and senior court officials with Parliamentary consent, and can dismiss Parliament itself. The opposition refused to be seated in the Mazhilis, claiming election fraud. There are 2 women in the 39-seat Senate, 8 women in the 77-seat Mazhilis and 4 women in the Cabinet. 8 non-Kazakhs are in the Senate, and members of ethnic minorities were elected to the Mazhilis. The deputy Prime Minister and a Cabinet member are non-Kazakhs. Parliament is becoming more open.

Discrimination on the basis of origin, social position, occupation, property status, sex, race, nationality, language, convictions, place of residence or any other circumstance is prohibited in law but not enforced.

The judiciary is cited as subject to executive branch pressure. Police and prison officials are accused of torture of detainees to coerce confessions. Conscripts have died as a result of military hazing and mistreatment. Impunity is a problem. Corruption is a serious problem that the government is beginning to address.

Despite access-to-information legislation, requests for public information are not answered. Freedom of speech and of the press are guaranteed but a variety of means are used to intimidate the media, from criminal charges to physical attacks. Criticism of the leadership brings retaliation. The protection of the dignity of the President in law makes it a criminal offence to release information about the President's health, financial state or private life. Economic information concerning mineral reserves and the government's foreign debt also cannot be made public.

Some 16% of the population lives below the poverty level. Kazakhstan is a source, transit and destination country for victims of trafficking. Young women are the primary targets. The curriculum of all high schools and universities now includes trafficking-awareness information, and universities have set up information and analysis centres dealing with trafficking.

Ethnic Kazakhs who fled during the Stalin era and who have returned are entitled to citizenship. The country is a secular state. The government has tried to amend the National Religion Law to give the Muslim Spiritual Association a quasi-official role.

The law provides for compulsory education to age 16. Officially education is free both at the elementary and secondary levels, but many secondary schools charge an unofficial entrance fee, which results in a drop in enrolment rates after primary school. UNICEF reports that only 10% of secondary school graduates go on to higher education.

The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child expressed concern that children in remote areas have limited access to education and that many teachers in rural schools are not fully trained. Poverty is widespread, but the state subsidy of school breakfasts and lunches has decreased even at a time when many parents cannot afford to feed their children. A high proportion of nurseries and kindergartens have closed. Children in rural areas do not go to school because their families cannot afford to buy them warm clothing and footwear. A lack of school transportation leaves parents reluctant to allow children to travel alone on public transportation. In urban areas the better off can afford to send children to newly opened private schools in which a month's tuition exceeds the total annual income of poor families.

The UN Committee called for special attention for children of minority groups and refugee children. Refugee or illegal migrant children are eligible for public education, but many are denied access to schools and others are not enrolled by parents who fear deportation.

There is sharp disagreement in Kazakhstan about the role of the Kazakh language in education. Some demand that the government pay much greater attention to development of the Kazakh language, while opponents stress that Kazakhstan is the homeland of all citizens regardless of language or ethnicity. In some areas Kazakhs are in a minority, and in any case many do not speak their mother tongue. The large majority of Kazakhs speak Russian, but few Russians or other Slavs speak Kazakh.

A 4-year programme begins at age 3. At this level 10% of education is private. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 30%. There are 25,229 ECE teachers (99% female). The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 11 : 1.

Education is compulsory for ages 7 to 16. Primary school begins at age 7 and lasts 4 years. At this level 1% of education is private. The NER is 93% (49% female). All students who enrol in Grade 1 reach the last grade of primary school. There are 60,203 primary teachers (98% female). The PTR is 18 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 11 and lasts 7 years. At this level 1% of education is private. 16% of students in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The NER is 92%. There are 184,647 secondary teachers (85% female). The PTR is 11 : 1 in secondary school.

664,449 students (57% female) study in tertiary institutions, for a Gross Enrolment Rate of 48%. Foreign students studying in Kazakhstan come from Asia (5,806), Central and Eastern Europe (2,806), the Arab States (36), North America and Western Europe (14) and Sub-Saharan Africa (3). At the same time, Kazakh students are studying abroad in the Russian Federation (20,098), Kyrgyzstan (3,635), Germany (876), Turkey (781) and the USA (538).

Discrimination against persons with disabilities is illegal in education and in other state services but is common. There are currently not enough schools or programmes to accommodate children with disabilities despite enactment of the Social Protection of Disabled Persons Act in 1991. Statistics record 49,000 disabled children under age 16. Disabled children are frequently abandoned by their families and kept in orphanages. A new law would allow disabled students to study at universities or technical and vocational schools. Citizens with mental illness or disabilities are committed by their families, often as young children, to inadequately funded state institutions without their consent or the possibility of judicial review.

Refugee children are often not able to attend school because they are either not registered by the local authorities or unable to speak the language. The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, but the government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees. The government cooperates with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organisations in assisting refugees.

Refugee registration is almost exclusively granted to refugees from Afghanistan. Chechens are not recognised as refugees but are given temporary legal resident status until they can return home. In an agreement with China, asylum claims from Uighurs are not accepted.

Kazakhstan's population is 46% Kazakh, 35% Russian and 19% other nationalities. The picture varies greatly by region. Kazakhs constitute a plurality or a majority in the western and southern oblasts but represent only one-fifth to one-third of the population in northern and eastern oblasts. Rural Kazakhstan is largely Kazakh; urban areas are largely Russian. Kazakh is the official state language, but Russian may be used officially on an equal basis. The government has insufficient funding to make Kazakh-language education universal.

Academic freedom is legally stated to be unrestricted, but, as is the case for journalists, academics cannot violate certain restrictions such as criticising the President and his family or providing information on topics that are not released for public discussion.

Discrimination against women is prohibited by law, but traditional practices limit their role in society. Women are under-represented in senior positions in state enterprises and over-represented in low-paying menial jobs. Women's salaries are, on average, 62% those of men. Women have unrestricted access to higher education. Violence and sexual harassment are reported as problems.

The general minimum age for employment is 16. However, children aged 15 may work without restriction if they have completed compulsory education, and children aged 14 may work with parental permission at jobs that do not interfere with their education. Child labour is widely used in agricultural areas during harvest season. The Ministry of Labour is responsible for enforcement of child labour laws, the abuse of which is not reported as a major problem.

Workers have the right to form and join trade unions, but not necessarily the unions of their choice. 3 trade union confederations exist and represent at least one-third of the workforce. Foreign financing of trade unions is prohibited. Collective bargaining agreements must not reduce provisions given to workers in individual contracts or under law. The right to strike is guaranteed, except in an extensive list of designated essential services. Strikes have taken place to protest the non-payment of wages and to recover salary arrears.

Forced or compulsory labour is prohibited, except as part of a criminal sentence or in a state of emergency or martial law; however, reports indicate such practices occur. The national monthly minimum wage of US$36.76 (5,000 KZT) does not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family; most workers earn above minimum wage in urban areas. The normal work week should not exceed 40 hours.