In this parliamentary democracy republic, legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Parliament (Sobranie). The President, Prime Minister and members of Parliament are elected to 5-year terms in periodic elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Elections in 2004 were noted as flawed but deemed to represent the will of voters. Elections in 20 municipalities were rerun because of irregularities. A multi-ethnic governing coalition is in place. An ethnic Albanian opposition party withdrew from the elections accusing the government of violations of electoral rules.

Proxy voting by male family members disenfranchised some Muslim women. 30% of candidates on political party lists must be women. There are 24 women in the 120-seat Parliament and 3 women in the 19-member Council of Ministers. 6 minority representatives serve in the Council, while in Parliament there are 26 ethnic Albanians, 3 Turks, 2 Serbs, 2 Bosniaks, 1 Roma and 1 Vlach.

The law guarantees equal rights regardless of gender, race, disability or social status, but discrimination against Roma in particular is a serious problem.

The judiciary is subject to political pressure and intimidation. Police and judicial corruption are reported to be of concern, but incidents of abuse and corruption are declining and steps are being taken to deal with the problem. For example, an anti-corruption commission recommended that criminal actions be started against judges where evidence warrants. The Judicial Council asked Parliament to dismiss 10 judges on grounds of unprofessional or unethical behaviour. A former interior minister fled to Croatia to avoid charges but was then extradited by Croatia to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia.

Opposition politicians accuse the interior ministry of using wiretaps for political purposes. The EU police advisory team works with the Macedonian police force.

Steps have been taken to increase minority representation on the force, and 1,500 ethnic minority police officers have been appointed since 2000. Mixed patrols work in ethnic Albanian areas.

There is no legislated access to government information, but freedom of speech and of the press are guaranteed. The media divide along ethnic lines on controversial issues. Journalists are trying to have libel and slander decriminalised. Access to the Internet is not restricted.

Macedonia is a source, transit and destination country for people trafficked for sexual exploitation, forced labour or servitude. The government is part of the Southeast European Initiative to combat trafficking. A witness protection law has been enacted in trafficking cases. The International Commission on Missing Persons has ended its work, with 23 persons still unaccounted for from the 1999 conflict.

The Serbian Orthodox Archbishop is serving an 18-month prison sentence for inciting religious intolerance. Outstanding property claims of the Jewish community over Yugoslav nationalisation of religious properties have been resolved

Education is compulsory to age 16, but some children do not attend school. Primary and secondary education are tuition-free, but costs for books and other materials are borne by families. Many rural ethnic Albanian families believe girls should be withdrawn from school at age 14. Almost half of ethnic minority students do not continue their studies beyond the mandatory level, reportedly because of a lack of classes in minority languages.

Roma leaders report that up to 10% of Roma children are not enrolled in school; of those who do attend, 50% drop out by Grade 5 and only 35% to 40% finish Grade 8. Poor physical conditions of schools and insufficient classroom space are common complaints. Child marriage occurs among the Roma and in the ethnic Albanian community. Between 500 and 1,000 street children, mostly Roma, are seen in the cities.

A 4-year programme begins at age 3. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 29%. Of the 2,935 ECE teachers, almost all (99%) are women. The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 11 : 1.

Education is compulsory for ages 7 to 16 years. Primary school begins at age 7 and continues for 4 years. The NER is 91% (48% female). Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 96% reach the last grade of primary school. There are 5,766 primary teachers (69% female). The PTR is 20 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 11 and is completed in 8 years. At this level 1% of education is private. 61% of students in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The NER is 81%. 1% of students repeat grades. There are 14,059 secondary teachers, 8,182 (50% female) in lower secondary and 5,877 (55% female) in upper secondary schools. The PTR is 15 : 1 in lower secondary and 16 : 1 in upper secondary education.

There are 45,624 students (56% female) in tertiary institutions, giving a Gross Enrolment Rate of 27%. There are 5,348 Macedonian students studying abroad, mainly in Bulgaria (2,690), Germany (819), the USA (349), Turkey (278) and Albania (177).

Discrimination on the basis of disability is prohibited but exists in education and in other state services. UNICEF and other organisations implement projects to help address the needs of children with disabilities. Social discrimination against disabled persons is reported. Children with disabilities are educated mainly in special schools, causing further marginalisation. Some pilot programmes have begun to mainstream special needs students into regular classes, but mainstreaming is made difficult by a lack of materials, poor infrastructure and a lack of training and support.

The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status to persons in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The government cooperates with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organisations to assist refugees. While the majority of Kosovars returned home, many Kosovo Roma remained. Claims are made of discrimination against Roma refugees.

The 2002 census reports the ethnic makeup of the population as 64.2% Macedonian, 25.2% Albanian, 3.9% Turkish, 2.7% Roma, 1.8% Serb, 0.8% Bosnian and 0.5% Vlach. Interethnic violence and tension continues and is reported in some schools, but conflicts due to discrimination are reportedly declining. Students from different ethnic groups often attend schools in separate shifts if separate facilities are not available.

A 2005 survey reports that for the first time in 7 years a majority of ethnic Albanians and ethnic Macedonians hold favourable opinions of the other ethnic group. Slow progress in reaching equitable representation in government departments causes dissension. Ethnic Macedonians view changes that increase the number of other minority groups in the workplace as discrimination against them.

The languages of ethnic minorities are recognised as official languages in areas where the minorities make up at least 20% of the population. Primary and secondary education can occur in the languages of the ethnic minorities, and education is available in Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish and Serbian. The number of students who receive secondary education in their first language is increasing; ethnic Albanians charge that public education resources are not distributed proportionately. Ethnic minorities are under-represented at the university level, but the number of minority students at this level is increasing. The University of Tetovo, whose language of instruction is Albanian, has been accredited.

Ethnic Turks complain of discrimination in government institutions and a lack of education and media in their language. Roma also complain of widespread discrimination. They are the least educated and have the highest rate of unemployment and the lowest incomes. Unemployment among the Roma population is over 70%; there are still 2,169 Roma refugees in the country from the 1999 conflict in Kosovo. Ethnic Albanians in particular are hostile to Roma refugees.

Reports do not indicate any restrictions of academic freedom. University education is now available in the Macedonian and Albanian languages.

Several women hold high-profile jobs in government. Equal pay for work of equal value is mandated, but wage discrimination is common. There are reports of the dismissal of women on maternity leave and discrimination against pregnant women. Women from parts of the ethnic Albanian community do not have equal opportunities for employment and education as a result of traditional and religious restrictions on their schooling.

Violence against women is a problem, and cultural mores discourage any outside assistance. Police do not always respond to allegations of domestic violence. Sexual harassment of women in the workplace is not addressed in law.

The minimum age for employment is 15. Children under 18 cannot work in jobs deemed detrimental to their physical, psychological or moral development, nor can they work night shifts or more than 40 hours a week. Enforcement of child labour legislation is sporadic, in part because child labour is widely accepted. Children work in the informal economy and roam the cities as street vendors. Most child labourers are Roma.

Workers have the right to form and join trade unions, but the government commonly interferes with union activity. Some 50% of the legal work force is unionised, with the public sector accounting for the highest rate.

The Confederation of Trade Unions of Macedonia (SSM) has close ties to government. Membership in the SSM is not mandatory, and unions have been forming outside the SSM structure. An Education International affiliate, the Union of Education, Science, and Culture (SONK), was the largest branch union of the SSM before severing ties and becoming independent. Following the formal notification to the authorities and SONK's application for independent registration, pressure was applied to reverse the decision, and local political leaders pressed union members to oppose the decision by the union's leadership.

The SSM set up a new organisation, called SSM SONK, which was immediately recognised by the government. Officials then claimed that SONK had to prove its membership because, having left SSM, it was therefore a new union. SONK's bank account was frozen, and the new SSM SONK moved to gain control of the funds.

The government broke off wage negotiations with SONK. A demonstration by SONK took place to protest the lack of social dialogue and collective bargaining in the education sector, and negotiations resumed. SONK, with support from EI and its affiliates, demonstrated its intention to ensure that the labour rights guaranteed under ILO Conventions were implemented in the education sector. SONK objected to SSM interference in its negotiations. Efforts to undermine the elected President of SONK followed. SONK and several other unions formerly members of SSM have now formed the Confederation of Free Unions. Eventually, after EI leadership and the President of SONK took up the matter with the Macedonian government and with the European Union, negotiations with SONK were revived and concluded.

All workers are covered by either the collective bargaining agreement for the public sector or the parallel agreement for the private sector. Collective agreements have failed to keep up with changes in the workplace. A new labour relations law legalises part-time and temporary workers not recognised under the earlier law and protects the right to bargain collectively and to strike. Employers can "exclude" (temporarily release) up to 2% of workers during a strike and rehire them after the strike. Forced or compulsory labour is prohibited but reportedly occurs.

There is no national minimum wage. Official statistics put the average monthly wage at about US$250 (12,464 dinars), which this does not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Official statistics show the 29.6% of the population lives below the poverty level. A 40-hour work week is standard.