Mongolia is in transition from a highly centralised state to a multi-party democracy and exhibits a mix of presidential and parliamentary powers. Elections in 2004 on the basis of universal suffrage elected a new President and 76 members of Parliament. Minor electoral irregularities were noted, and the elections were followed by a period of instability involving coalitions and challenges. The Prime Minister, from the majority party, is nominated by the President and confirmed by Parliament. 5 of 18 registered political parties are represented in Parliament. There are 5 women in Parliament. 3 ethnic Kazakhs were elected.

The judiciary is independent in law but reportedly corrupt and subject to outside influence. Security forces can record telephone conversations.

Discrimination on the basis of ethnic origin, language, race, age, sex, social origin or status is prohibited, and the legislation is enforced.

There are reports of police abuse of detainees. The UN Special Rapporteur on Torture expressed concern about the persistence of torture and noted that police operate in a climate of impunity.

Corruption is said to be a growing problem in government. Economic and social changes have put families in very difficult situations; job loss, inflation and reduced spending on social and educational programmes have moved the responsibility for provision of health and education to the family.

Access to information is limited. Freedom of speech and of the press are guaranteed, but indirect intimidation of the press is a concern. Libel lawsuits and tax audits are used to harass journalists. Internet access is not restricted.

Mongolia is a source and transit country for trafficking of women and children for sexual exploitation. Some NGOs believe that members of the police are involved in the movement of trafficking victims across borders.

Social discrimination against those with HIV/AIDS is reported.

A tradition of raising children communally has broken down, resulting in many orphans living on the streets and not attending school. Tuition-free, compulsory public education is provided to age 16, but despite legislation families are required to pay for children to attend school. Girls over 15 are more likely than boys to complete their education. Schools are often located far from homes, and transportation to school is difficult to obtain. There is a severe shortage of teachers and didactic materials at all educational levels.

A 5-year programme begins at age 3. At this level 4% of education is private. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 32%. There are 3,267 ECE teachers (96% female). The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 28 : 1.

Education is compulsory for ages 8 to 15. Primary school begins at age 8 and lasts 4 years. At this level 3% of education is private. The NER is 84% (49% female). Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 91% reach the last grade of primary school. 1% of students repeat grades. There are 7,172 primary teachers (94% female). The PTR is 33 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 12 and lasts 6 years. At this level 3% of education is private. 21% of students in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The NER is 82%. There are 14,662 secondary teachers, 9,719 (73% female) in lower secondary and 4,943 (70% female) in upper secondary schools. The PTR is 24 : 1 in lower secondary and 20 : 1 in upper secondary education.

108,738 students (62% female) study in tertiary institutions, for a Gross Enrolment Rate of 39%. At this level 32% of education is private. 4,567 Mongolian students study abroad, mainly in Germany (1,400), the USA (711), Japan (689), Kazakhstan (569) and Turkey (309).

Discrimination against persons with disabilities is prohibited in education. Benefits are to be provided according to the nature and severity of the disability, but little is done to implement this legislation. Companies employing more than 50 persons are to hire at least 3 persons with disabilities, in return for tax benefits. Special schools are available for children with disabilities, and such students are free to attend regular schools. Training and support services are required for staff to work with disabled persons.

Mongolia is not a party to the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol. The law does not provide asylum or refugee status, and the government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees. Mongolia's government is now reported to assist North Korean refugees in transit to South Korea, after a period of returning some refugees to China, which in turn sent them back to North Korea.

The 100,000strong Kazakh Muslim minority freely practise their religion in the region where most of them live, but they were prevented from building a mosque in the capital, Ulaanbaatar. A Ministry of Education directive bans mixing foreign language or other training with religious instruction.

Higher education in Mongolia remains under state supervision, though it has gradually been adopting more democratic structures since the 1980s. Presidents of tertiary institutions are now elected by academic staff. Academic freedom and institutional autonomy have increased over the past decade and are now protected by law. The ministry still appoints representatives to the governing boards of state-owned institutions.

Women and men have equal rights in law, including the right to equal pay for work of equal value. Education is open to both boys and girls on an equal basis. Women make up half of the work force and many are the primary wage earners for families. Woman cannot work in conditions that could harm infant and maternal health.

Sexual harassment occurs and is not yet dealt with in law. Women hold mid-level positions in government and business and are moving to management. Domestic violence is a serious problem, but social denial of domestic violence is changing with increasing public awareness.

The minimum age for employment is 16. With parental consent children aged 14 and 15 may work up to 30 hours a week, but not at night or in hazardous conditions. Children work in the informal sector, many to support themselves, their siblings and sometimes their parents. The number of working children is reported to be about 58,000. Few teenage boys in rural areas complete secondary school. Forced or compulsory labour by children is prohibited.

Workers have the right to form or join trade unions, though some restrictions apply to public servants and workers without contracts. Membership in unions is reported to have declined to less than half of the work force. A merger of trade union federations has taken place. Wages and conditions of work are set by employers, and trade unions are sometimes consulted. Workers have the right to strike, except for people in services deemed critical for national defence and safety.

Forced or compulsory labour is prohibited, and the law is enforced. Prisoners are required to work as part of their sentence, with remuneration sent to their families. The minimum wage is US$33(40 thousand tugrik) a month in both public and private sectors. This does not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The standard legal work week is 40 hours.