Papua New Guinea is a federal, parliamentary democracy. Parliament has 119 members from 19 provinces and the National Capital District elected on the basis of universal suffrage. Voter intimidation and violence were reported in 2002 elections, and polls in 6 electoral districts in the Southern Highlands were ordered to be redone, and were successfully completed with Australian assistance. A coalition government emerged following the elections. A new Bougainville constitution was approved in a referendum in 2004. Legislative and presidential elections were held for a new Autonomous Bougainville Government.

The patriarchal culture impedes the full participation of women; only 1 of 109 seats in Parliament is held by a woman. 5 members of minorities serve in Parliament, and 2 are in the Cabinet.

The judiciary is independent in law and in practice. Village courts, headed by local chiefs, handle minor offences under customary law. Equal protection irrespective of race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed, religion or sex is provided in law, but discrimination against women is reported. No single tribe or clan dominates the country, but violent tribal conflicts are reported to be increasing.

Police are accused of abuse during arrest and detention. A Human Rights Watch report details police abuse of children in custody. Politicians are accused of bribing police officials to intimidate political foes. Corruption is reported as a serious problem at all levels of government.

Freedom of speech and of the press are guaranteed and respected in practice. Internet access is not restricted.

The 2004 HIV/AIDS Management and Protection Act ensures access of any person to goods or services for protection against HIV infection and prohibits firing employees because of HIV/AIDS-positive status. Criminal penalties for intentional transmission of the HIV virus are included in the Act. Nevertheless, social stigmatisation of those with HIV/AIDS infection is reported, and companies have dismissed HIV-positive employees after learning of their condition.

Primary education is not free, compulsory or universal. Charges for tuition, books and materials are substantial. Many children end their schooling at the completion of primary school. Attrition rates are high at the community school level, and there is a serious access problem at the secondary level.

Secondary education can only be offered to about 1 in 6 children, and fewer than 2% of students who enrol in secondary education reach Grade 12. Gender imbalances are noted on most measures of attainment. The majority of secondary institutions are boarding schools. Developing a comprehensive education system is challenging because the country includes, besides the eastern portion of the island of New Guinea, some 1,400 smaller islands as well.

The people belong to more than 1,000 tribes and speak some 800 languages. Public schools provide 1 hour a week of religious instruction. Religious representatives teach the classes, and parents choose the religious education class for their children. No classes are provided for members of non-Christian religions. Children may be opted out of religious education classes.

A 1-year programme begins at age 6. At this level 1% of education is private. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 31%. There are 2,712 ECE teachers (37% female). The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 35 : 1.

Education is not compulsory. Primary school begins at age 7 and lasts 6 years. The NER is 94% (45% female). Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 58% reach the last grade of primary school. There are 19,201 primary teachers (39% female). The PTR is 35 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 13 and lasts 6 years. 9% of students in lower secondary and 10% in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) is 26%. There are 7,259 secondary teachers (36% female) in lower secondary and 910 (41% female) in upper secondary education. The PTR is 24 : 1 in lower secondary and 15 : 1 in upper secondary schools.

There are no tertiary institutions in the country. 896 students from Papua New Guinea are studying abroad, mainly in Australia (648), New Zealand (105), the UK (56), the USA (32) and Japan (31).

Programmes or services for the disabled are not provided directly by the government. Funds are provided to NGOs to permit some services to disabled persons, but in some parts of the country no services exist. Discrimination is reported in education and training for disabled children. The family unit provides support for disabled children and adults. Free consultation and treatment for persons with mental disabilities are available only in major cities.

Although party to the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, the country has not enacted enabling legislation or established a system to provide protection for refugees.

For over 50 years vernacular literacy programmes have been run by provincial elementary trainers, local language literacy programme supervisors and teachers, working with sociolinguistics experts. They have produced thousands of books, learning-to-read materials and other mother-tongue books. These books include health and HIV/AIDS education materials. Hundreds of alphabets have been designed with the help of local communities. Sociolinguistic surveys have been conducted all over the country, giving a picture of the complex linguistic and cultural heritage of Papua New Guinea. Programmes in language development, literacy, multilingual education and translation have addressed 337 of the nation's ethnic minority languages.

Reports do not indicate any restrictions of academic freedom.

Legislation has been enacted dealing with family, marriage and property rights for women, but traditional discrimination against women persists. Sexual harassment is not illegal and is widespread. Women have senior positions in business, the professions and the civil service. Despite the success of some women, only 58% of women are literate compared to 71% of men. Violence against women is serious and widespread.

Domestic violence is viewed as a private matter, and prosecutions are rare. Polygyny is still customary in some areas, and an increasing number of women are charged with the murder of another of their husband's wives. The perception that women are property is fostered by payments of bride price and the exchange of women as compensation in clan disputes.

The legal minimum age of marriage is 18 for boys and 16 for girls, though with parental and court consent marriage can occur at 16 for boys and 14 for girls. Traditional practice allows the marriage of children as young as age 12, and child marriage remains common in isolated rural communities. Child brides are taken as additional wives or given to pay family debts; they often become domestic servants and are vulnerable to domestic abuse.

The minimum age for work is 18. However, with parental permission, medical clearance and a work permit from a labour office, children as young as 11 may work in a family business, as often happens in subsistence agriculture. Reports cite commercial sexual exploitation of children in urban areas and note that minors work in bars and nightclubs. Children work long hours as domestic servants, sometimes to repay a family debt.

Workers have the right to form and join trade unions. Some 50% of employees in the formal economy are members of 50 trade unions associated with the Papuan Trade Unions Congress. The Public Employees Association represents some 33% of national, provincial and municipal government employees. Unions are independent of government and political parties. Collective bargaining on wages is permitted and takes place. The government has discretionary power to cancel wage agreements or arbitration awards when they are deemed contrary to government policy. The ILO has criticised this article of the labour law. Strikes are allowed, but the government is reported to intervene to require arbitration before workers can legally strike.

The Minimum Wage Board sets a minimum wage for the private sector. The national youth wage, for ages 16 to 21 is 75% of the adult minimum wage. The minimum wage is US $12.75 (37.50 kina) a week. This does not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The work week is 42 hours in urban areas and 44 hours in rural areas.