Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by male descendants of the first King. The monarchy is the central institution of government, and there are no elected representative institutions. The Koran is the constitution of the country, and the justice system is based on Shari'a law. There are no recognised political parties or national elections. The leading members of the royal family choose the King from within the family. The King serves as Prime Minister and appoints his Crown Prince to serve as deputy Prime Minister. The King also appoints the 20-member Council of Ministers, or Cabinet, which advises the King on policy and directs the work of the ministries.

The Council of Senior Islamic Scholars, another advisory body to the King and the Cabinet, reviews legislation and public policies for compliance with Shari'a. Legislation is ratified by royal decree and must be compatible with Shari'a law. In local elections in 2005, non-military male citizens aged 21 or older voted for half the seats on municipal advisory councils. The King appointed the other half.

Women cannot vote or stand for office. The Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Council) has 150 appointed members serving on 11 committees. A woman is an advisor to the Majlis al-Shura. Women's councils advise local governors on issues concerning women. No women or religious minorities serve in Cabinet. 4 seats in the 150-seat Majlis al­Shura are held by Shi'a Muslims. In response to calls for reform, the National Dialogue Centre has been established by the King. In a series of meetings, scholars and civil society members have discussed political reform, religious tolerance and the role of women and youth.

Recommendations have been presented to the King for his consideration. 12 senior judges are appointed by the King on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council. The judiciary is independent in law, but the King is the highest court of appeal.

Discrimination based on race is prohibited but is reported to occur. The Shi'a minority is subject to social, legal, economic and political discrimination. Shi'a Muslims use their own legal tradition on cases involving domestic issues. A man's testimony equals that of 2 women, and judges may discount the testimony of persons who do not adhere to the Hanbali doctrine of Sunni Islam, with the result Shi'a testimony is often ignored or given less weight than Sunni testimony.

Privacy rights are infringed by police and by religious police. Mail is opened to determine whether material is pornographic or contains non-Sunni Islamic religious material. A system of informants report "seditious ideas, anti-government activity or behaviour contrary to Islam." Men who work in certain government positions cannot marry non-citizens.

The government has not permitted the UN Committee against Torture to investigate allegations of torture. The religious police intimidate, harass and arrest persons they accuse of committing crimes of vice, witchcraft or sorcery. Violations of dress and behaviour standards are punished. Officials are accused of abuse of prisoners and of coercing confessions by beatings, whippings and sleep deprivation. Corporal punishment in law includes public execution by beheading, amputation and the lash, among other measures.

A lack of transparency in decision-making fuels the perception of corruption on the part of some members of the royal family.

The role of the media is said to be "to educate the masses and to promote national unity." Freedom of speech and of the press are restricted, and articles deemed negative toward the royal family or Islam are censored, as are foreign publications. Journalists practise self-censorship. However, discussions are reported of social, economic and political issues that were previously considered taboo. The new Saudi Journalist Association is open to men and women, and foreign journalists can join as non-voting members. Satellite dishes are common, and Internet access is widespread through government-monitored servers, though access to some Web sites is blocked.

Most forms of trafficking are criminalised. Non-citizens must have resident identity cards that include a religious designation. Religious police are reported to pressure employers not to renew identity cards of non-Muslims. Anti-Semitic comments appear in editorial matter, but reportedly less often.

Homosexual activity is punishable by death or flogging. The media have been urged to discourage discrimination against HIV/AIDS-positive people. 3 HIV centres provide diagnostic services. Reports cite discrimination in medical treatment to HIV-positive non-citizens, who are usually deported.

Education is free at all levels but is not compulsory. The study of Islam remains at the core of the education system, but education has expanded to encompass instruction in diverse fields. Most children are segregated by sex from age 7, but some schools are integrated to the end of Grade 4. Religious textbooks are said to emphasise intolerance of other religious traditions. Saudi officials have indicated the textbooks will be revised. Shi'a books are banned, and Shi'a are not allowed to teach religion to classes beyond primary school. They are not allowed to open private schools for girls.

A 3-year programme begins at age 3. At this level 46% of education is private. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 5%. All 10,049 ECE teachers are women. The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 10 : 1.

Primary school begins at age 6 and lasts 6 years. At this level 7% of education is private. The NER is 53% (48% female). Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 92% reach the last grade of primary school. 4% of students repeat grades. There are 204,434 primary teachers (62% female). The PTR is 12 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 12 and lasts 6 years. At this level 8% of education is private. 3% of students in lower secondary and 4% in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The NER is 52%. 7% of students repeat grades. There are 181,298 secondary teachers, 102,614 (50% female) in lower secondary schools and 78,684 (50% female) in upper secondary education. The PTR is 11 : 1 in lower secondary and 12 : 1 in upper secondary schools.

537,732 students (59% female) study in tertiary institutions, for a Gross Enrolment Rate of 26%. At this level 7% of education is private. Foreign students studying in Saudi Arabia come from the Arab States (6,049), Asia (2,312), Sub-Saharan Africa (1,606), Central and Eastern Europe (526), North America and Western Europe (372) and Latin America and the Caribbean (42). At the same time, 9,318 Saudi Arabian students are studying abroad, mainly in the USA (3,521), the UK (2,192), Jordan (1,494), Bahrain (674) and Canada (437).

The Special Education Department of the Ministry of Education operates schools for the blind, deaf and the physically and mentally disabled. Hiring quotas for persons with disabilities are legislated, and persons with disabilities are increasingly being integrated to the public mainstream. The government and private organisations provide education and employment for persons with disabilities. An endowment committee and a supreme council to deal with the affairs of the disabled, headed by the Crown Prince, have been established. Numerous centres exist for persons with different forms of disability. The government is reported to be investigating allegations of abuse of mental patients at a hospital. Foreign criminals are said to import children with disabilities to beg.

Legislation does not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol, but the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. Iraqi refugees have been provided safe haven, and the government provides support to the UNHCR for their care. The longstanding Palestinian refugee problem is cited as a reason Saudi Arabia has not ratified the UN Convention. In 2006, the government permitted some long-term Iraqi refugees and their families to leave the camp upon receipt of a refugee card and a residence permit that allows them to work and to access education and medical facilities.

Discrimination on the basis or race is illegal but is reported to exist. Foreign workers from Africa and Asia are subject to formal and informal discrimination. Pay scales for similar labour or professional services are set by nationality. Ismailis have requested equal employment opportunities as well as a university to be established in Najran. Thousands of native-born residents, known as Bidoons, live in the country but lack citizenship for a number of reasons. Some are descendants of nomadic tribes or of foreign fathers who immigrated to the country before citizenship was institutionalised. Others are rural migrants whose parents failed to register their births. Lack of citizenship denies them employment and education. Bidoons, as a result, are among the poorest people in the country.

Academic freedom is restricted. The study of evolution, Freud, Marx, western music and western philosophy is not permitted. Reports indicate that informants monitor classes and report to government and religious authorities. A Shi'a professor faces a travel ban for criticism of the government's discriminatory policies against the Shi'a. Shi'a activist writers are banned from travelling.

A teacher was sentenced to 3 years in prison and 300 lashes and fired from his job after a discussion with students about love in relation to marriages and in relation to God. He was accused of encouraging homosexuality and adultery. The conviction was appealed, and the teacher was pardoned by the King. A high school chemistry teacher was accused of trying to sow doubt in a student's creed by speaking about his views on Christianity and Judaism and analysing the causes of terrorism. He was sentenced to 750 lashes and a prison term of 40 months and was banned from teaching. He also has been pardoned by the King.

Women face discrimination in law and custom. They can own property and are entitled to financial support from their husbands or male relatives but have few political or social rights and are not treated as equals in society. Women cannot drive cars and must enter buses by separate entrances and sit in designated sections. They risk arrest for being in a vehicle driven by a male who is not an employee or a close male relative.

Violence against women is reported to be common. Hospital workers are now required to report any suspicious injuries to authorities. The abuse of women working as domestic servants is also noted. Domestic abuse is considered a family matter and police will not intervene. Women are expected to wear an abaya, an overgarment covering the entire body, and religious police expect Muslim women to cover their faces.

Women are subject to greater restrictions than men regarding marriage to non-citizens and to non-Muslims. Men may divorce without cause, but women must show cause. A Muslim woman may keep her children until age 7 for boys and age 9 for girls, but beyond these ages their custody goes to her husband or her deceased husband's family.

Women have access to free but segregated education through the university level. More than 58% of university students are women, but there are areas of study that they are not permitted to enter. Men may study overseas. Women doing so should be accompanied by a male relative, but many women now study overseas without a guardian.

Employment opportunities for women are mainly in education and health care. They cannot accept jobs in rural areas if no adult male family member can take responsibility for them. Most workplaces are segregated by gender. Contact with a male supervisor or client is allowed by telephone or fax. Women and men work together in some hospitals, and women now broadcast radio news.

Maternity leave is provided, and employers have to provide child care if they employ 50 or more female employees. Since 2001 women have been able to obtain their own identity cards, but they must have permission to receive a card from a male relative or guardian.

The minimum age for work is 15. Children play a minimal role in the work force. The only exception is a boy who is the only family worker. There is no minimum age for workers in family-owned businesses or in areas considered as extensions of the household. Children under 18 may not be employed in hazardous or harmful industries.

Child beggars are usually non-citizens who are trafficked for the specific purpose of begging. Forced or compulsory labour by children is not prohibited in law, and reports indicate it occurs. A regulation has been introduced requiring all camel jockeys to be at least age 18, and it is reported to be enforced.

Since 2001 the government has permitted the establishment of labour committees. Collective bargaining is prohibited. Foreign workers constitute 88% of the work force in the private sector. Forced or compulsory labour occurs when employers take the passports and identity cards of foreign employees so they can control the movements of their employees. To make such employees renew a contract or drop claims for unpaid salary, some employers prevent foreign workers from obtaining exit visas. More foreign workers are now taking cases to labour courts, and a department for protection of foreign workers has been established.

There is no official minimum wage for citizen workers; the unofficial private sector minimum wage is US$320 (1,200 riyals) a month. The King announced a 15% public sector wage increase in 2005. The Chamber of Commerce announced a private sector wage increase to US$400 (1,500 riyals) a month. There is no official minimum wage for foreign workers. A 48-hour work week is standard.