Sudan is an authoritarian republic where the President and his National Congress Party (NCP) took power in a military coup in 1989. From 1999 a power struggle between the President and the Speaker of Parliament resulted in the latter's being ousted and jailed and a state of national emergency being declared by presidential decree. In 2000, presidential and parliamentary elections, deemed to be deeply flawed, were held, and Parliament was re-instated in 2001.

Violent ethnic and religious conflicts have taken place, and the state of emergency was ended when the Sudan People's Liberation Movement, the Sudan Liberation Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement signed a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) and adopted a constitution. As part of the agreement, 9 members of the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) and 16 members of the government were sworn in as ministers in 2005, forming the first post-war Government of National Unity, to serve until elections are held in 2009. However, control remained in dispute at key ministries energy, defence, interior and finance.

The National Assembly has 450 members, and the Council of States has 50 members elected by state legislatures; all serve 6-year terms. A 3-member Presidency heads the government, and legislative and Cabinet positions are allocated according to a formula giving 52% of the positions to the NCP, 28% to the SPLM and 14% to northern opposition parties. 6% go to southern parties. Women hold 66 seats in the Assembly and head 2 of 50 ministries.

In Darfur, the government-supported militia (janjaweed) continues to commit serious human rights abuses, killing thousands of civilians, razing villages and torturing women. The UN International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur concluded that "while the government did not pursue a policy of genocide directly or through the militias under its control, there were violations of humanitarian and international law that could be considered war crimes."

Millions of people are internally displaced; more than 210,000 refugees have fled to Chad. Despite the presence of the African Mission in Sudan (AMIS), violence continues, and evidence continues to emerge from Darfur of what is increasingly termed genocide. UN teams have investigated the situation in Darfur, and the UN Security Council referred Darfur to the International Criminal Court (ICC). The chief prosecutor opened an investigation into Darfur without the cooperation of the Sudanese government, which has refused to hand over any criminals associated with the conflict. The investigation has led to war crimes charges before the ICC.

An estimated 15,000 Dinka women and children have been abducted, and 10,000 to 12,000 people remain unaccounted for. Some are reported to have been sold into slavery while others have been co-opted to the military. The UN's International Commission of Inquiry in Darfur found that "rape or other forms of sexual violence committed by the janjaweed and government soldiers in Darfur was widespread and systematic."

The judiciary is reported as subservient to the President and the security forces. The government treats Islam as the state religion, to be reflected in the laws, institutions and policies.

Discrimination on the basis of race, gender or religion is prohibited, but it continues, as reported by non-Muslims, non-Arab Muslims and Muslims from different sects.

Children in camps for vagrant minors are required to study the Koran. Physical punishments in accordance with Shari'a law include flogging, amputation, stoning and the public display of a body after execution. The southern states are exempt from Shari'a law.

Transparency International reports a perception of severe corruption. Government officials and their families are accused of owning companies doing business with the government. Police corruption is pervasive, and impunity is a serious problem.

Access to information is not provided in law or in practice. Freedom of thought, expression and of the press is regulated by law and severely restricted in practice. Radio and television must reflect government policies. Official censorship ended with the state of emergency, but journalists practise self-censorship. Citizens who can afford it have access to foreign electronic media, and Internet access is not restricted.

Shari'a and the State of Emergency laws prohibit sexual exploitation, but trafficking is rampant. Tribal leaders are reported to transport children to the Persian Gulf to be used as camel jockeys or as labourers.

Government militias promote hatred and discrimination to incite tribal violence. Homosexuality is a crime.

Education is legally compulsory and free, but only half of compulsory school-age children attend primary school. Students have been expelled from class for failing to pay school fees despite a decree that now prohibits this practice. The provision of education is not equal among states and between genders. Primary enrolment is reported to be 70% of eligible children in Khartoum State but 30% in the east of the country. Boys and girls in the north have equal access to education, but girls are subject to early marriage and families with restricted income send sons to school.

Class size is reported to be as high as 120 students. Fewer than 27% of primary school age children countrywide are in basic education. Access to education for school-age children in Darfur has improved, but much more is needed. UNICEF supports education for nomadic groups. Police send homeless, vagrant children to "reformation camps," where they are detained for indefinite periods. Schooling is poor and living conditions primitive. Teenage boys are recruited from the camps for military service, where they endure hardship and abuse.

A 2-year programme begins at age 4. At this level, 74% of education is private. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 23%. Of the 13,616 teachers working at this level, 96% are women. The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 33 : 1.

Education is compulsory for ages 6 to 13. Primary school begins at age 6 and continues for 6 years. 46% of students are girls. At this level, 4% of education is private. The Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) is 60% as older students make up for education delays. Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 88% continue to the last grade of primary school. 2% of students repeat grades. 105,142 teachers (62% female) work at this level. The PTR is 29 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 12 and is completed in 5 years. At this level 10% of education is private. 5% of students in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The GER is 33%. There are 52,673 secondary teachers, 26,089 (66 female) in lower secondary 26,584 (53% female) in upper secondary schools. The PTR is 29 : 1 in lower secondary and 20 : 1 in upper secondary education.

2,886 students study abroad, mainly in Germany (542), the United Kingdom (354), Malaysia (323), the USA (279) and Saudi Arabia (245).

Legislation dealing with persons with disabilities says that "the state shall guarantee to persons with special needs the enjoyment of all the rights and freedoms set out in the constitution, access to suitable education, employment and full participation in society." But there are no laws to implement this guarantee. NGOs and community organisations provide some education for children with disabilities.

The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, but the government has not established a system for providing protection for refugees. The UNHCR assists refugees and asylum-seekers and reports that 145,000 refugees from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Chad, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Somalia are in 110 camps scattered throughout the country.

Child refugees do not receive free primary school education and are not treated as citizens as required by the UN Convention. Refugees are not allowed work permits. About 5 million internally displaced persons are reported, mostly in Darfur, where atrocities continue to be committed.

The population is a mix of more than 500 Arab and African tribes with numerous languages and dialects. Northern Muslims dominate the government. In Darfur the fighting is between the Muslims who self-identify as Arab and the Muslims who self-identify as non-Arab. Discrimination against ethnic minorities is reported in every aspect of society. Non-Arabic speaking regions experience discrimination in education and employment.

A wide network of government informants is reported to conduct surveillance in schools and universities and other workplaces. Academic freedom is restricted. The government appoints vice-chancellors to administer universities, and it determines the curriculum. Academics exercise self-censorship. Private universities are not subject to the same regulations, but self-censorship also occurs there.

Harassment of university student groups is reported. Students protesting rigged student elections were fired on, and a student was killed. Security forces tortured 9 students after they attempted to form a union.

Women are not discriminated against in the pursuit of employment. Legally, they are not supposed to work after 10 pm, but many do. More than half the professors at Khartoum University are women, and women have professional roles. Women are allowed to own and dispose of property and are entitled to inheritance from their parents; a widow inherits one-eighth of her husband's estate and the balance is divided two-thirds among sons and one-third among daughters. Women must dress according to Islamic standards.

Sexual harassment is not specifically prohibited. Domestic violence is cited as common. Women who file complaints are accused of spreading false information. Abuse is grounds for divorce. Women in Darfur are subjected to abuse and rape. A rape victim may fear punishment for illegal pregnancy since, unless she can provide proof of the crime, she can be charged with adultery. Police in Darfur are reported to have detained women for adultery and physically abused them.

Female genital mutilation is widespread in the North but is becoming less common among urban, educated families. Trafficking in women remains a problem. The legal age of marriage is 10 for girls and 15 (or the onset of puberty) for boys.

The minimum age for employment is 18, but the legislation is not enforced; young children work in factories, in the informal sector and on rural farms where many girls work in the fields. Militias conscript children as soldiers, and child trafficking for sexual exploitation and exploitative labour is widespread. The situation is exacerbated by a lack of schools and the cost of attending schools where they exist. Some demobilisation of child soldiers has taken place. Children who are arrested and accused of committing crimes are detained for indefinite periods and are recruited by militias.

The law provides for the right of association but it is denied in practice. All union activity is controlled and only a single national federation, the Sudan Workers Trade Union Federation (SWTUF), can exist. Workers live in fear of penalties for violating labour decrees. The ILO has stated that the trade union monopoly contravenes the principles of freedom of association.

Collective bargaining is not allowed. Strikes are illegal unless they have government approval. The government's auditor general supervises union funds, which are considered public money. Manipulation of professional, trade union and student union elections is reported. 1 export processing zone is exempt from labour laws. Forced or compulsory labour is illegal but is reported as common practice. The government denies that slavery and forced labour exist, but conscription of men and boys into the fighting forces by all groups is reported.

The ILO reports that abduction, forced labour and sexual slavery of women and children continue. The minimum wage of $48 (SDD 12,500) a month does not provide a worker and family a decent standard of living. The work week is 48 hours.