Syria is a parliamentary republic whose governing regime is considered to be more authoritarian than democratic. In 1970 the Minister of Defence led a military coup, becoming Prime Minister and consolidating power. In 1971, he was confirmed as President for a 7-year term by national referendum. The position was confirmed by 5 further referendums until his death in 2000. The President is elected by referendum from candidates chosen by Parliament. In 2000 the son of the late President was confirmed unopposed in a referendum and assumed the Presidency. Parliament amended the constitution to allow his candidacy by reducing the minimum age of the President from age 40 to 34. The primacy of the Ba'ath party in Parliament is mandated. Party leaders influence all 3 branches of the government. The President is Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front (NPF). The constitution ensures the NPF a majority by allowing only 83 of 250 seats in the People's Council to be open to independent candidates. Terms of office are for 5 years.

Women can participate in the political process, but not all minorities. Jews and Kurds cannot participate, with the result that elections were deemed neither free not fair. 30 People's Council seats are held by women, and there are 2 women in the Cabinet. There is no official state religion, and there is a strict separation of religious institutions and the state. The judiciary is independent in law but reportedly subject to political influence.

Discrimination is prohibited on the basis of race, sex, disability, language or social status. But all citizens are subject to Shari'a law. Some 80 Jewish citizens are denied government employment, and they are also exempt from military service. Jews are the only minority group whose official documents note their religion.

Torture, arbitrary arrest and detention are illegal, but they are significant problems. Human Rights Watch reports the arrest and torture of university students. Estimates of the number of political prisoners range from a few hundred to 1,000. In 2 reports on the assassination of the Lebanese Prime Minister, the Chief Investigator for the UN International Independent Investigation Commission concluded that evidence pointed to the involvement of Syrian authorities and cited high-ranking Syrian security officials as suspects.

Freedom of speech and the press are provided in law but not in practice. Dissemination of information is controlled, and criticism of the government and discussion of religious and ethnic minority rights are forbidden. Journalists and writers are reported to practise self-censorship. The lifting of bans on Internet access and mobile telephone use is having an impact on society. A growing number of intellectuals are reportedly speaking out, and formerly illegal opposition parties are beginning to operate. The print and electronic media have criticised government performance and reported on a variety of social and economic issues. Foreign broadcasts are available. But the government retains broad discretion to decide what is permitted in the media, and journalists continue to report harassment.

All Kurdish language publications are prohibited, and journalists cannot support Kurdish rights. Internet and e-mail use is growing, and access is blocked to some Internet sites. The Ministry of Information has recommended licensing an independent association of journalists. Public access to government information is not provided for in law.

Syria is a destination country for women trafficked for the purpose of sexual and labour exploitation. The government does not comply with the minimum standards to eliminate trafficking. Sri Lanka and the Philippines have banned their citizens from taking employment as domestic workers in Syria.

Education is compulsory for citizen children aged 6 to 12 (projected for extension to 14) and is free through university. The legal age of marriage is 18 for men and 17 for women. Pressure for early marriage interferes with girls' education mainly in rural areas, and the dropout rate for girls remains high. Programmes to encourage girls who have dropped out of school to return to complete their studies have been developed in some regions. Educational disparities by region are reported.

Palestinians and other non-citizens can send their children to school. Stateless Kurds can also send their children to school, but their children, lacking national identification, cannot attend state universities. Arabic is the language of instruction in public schools, but Armenian, Hebrew, Syriac (Aramaic) and Chaldean can be used as liturgical languages. All schools are non-sectarian. Christian and Druze minorities have schools that use the state curriculum.

Religious instruction is mandatory, and is based on a Sunni Muslim interpretation of Islam. Curricula are government-approved. Separate classes for Muslim and Christian students are provided for religious education.

A 3-year programme begins at age 3. At this level 73% of education is private. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 10%. There are 6,710 ECE teachers (96% female), of whom 22% are trained. The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 22 : 1.

Primary school begins at age 6 and lasts 4 years. At this level 4% of education is private. The NER is 92% (48% female). Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 92% reach the last grade of primary school. 7% of students repeat grades. There are 124,665 primary teachers (62% female). The PTR is 18 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 10 and lasts 8 years. At this level 47% of education is private. 31% of students in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The NER is 58%. 8% of students repeat grades. There are 42,643 secondary teachers (43% female). The PTR is 10 : 1 in upper secondary schools.

10,385 Syrian students are studying abroad, mainly in Jordan (2,279), France (2,237), Germany (1,207), Saudi Arabia (668) and Armenia (630).

Discrimination against persons with disabilities is prohibited in law. Government policies support the integration of disabled persons into the public sector work force, but policy implementation has been sporadic. In 2004 regulations were enacted reserving 4% of public sector jobs for persons with disabilities. It is unclear how much education is provided for disabled children; NGOs provide some education, but, as with primary and secondary education, regional disparities exist in the services available.

The government is not a party to either the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol. But it cooperates with the UNHCR and UNRWA to assist refugees and asylum-seekers. 429,399 Palestinian refugees are registered with UNRWA. Refugees in Syria also include some 60,000 Iraqis and 4,782 persons from Iraq, Somalia, Sudan, Yemen, Afghanistan, Algeria, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Iran. There are reports of Iraqi girls and women refugees being forced to work as prostitutes to sustain their families.

National and ethnic minorities conduct religious, and cultural activities; the Kurdish minority is an exception. Refugees International reports that 300,000 stateless Kurds experience discrimination. Limits are placed on the use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. Stateless persons are severely disadvantaged and receive little by way of government services, including education.

Academic freedom is restricted. Teachers are expected to support government policy. Slightly more freedom of expression is permitted at the university level. Since 2002, people other than Ba'ath party members are permitted to study political science at the University of Damascus Political Sciences Institute. Until then it had been part of the Ba'ath Party's National Command (top council) and open only to party members. Political conferences and discussions still require prior approval for lectures and seminars.

Equality between women and men is legislated, including equal pay for work of equal value. A child is entitled to financial support of a minimum of 1,000 Syrian pounds a year. A divorced mother loses the right to custody of her sons at age 13 and of her daughters at age 15. Inheritance is based on Shari'a law. Polygyny is legal but is rarely practised. Women are active in public life and in most professions, including education at all levels. 20% of university professors are women. Women are also in the armed forces. The education of girls and women is encouraged, and equal access to schools and universities is available.

However, personal status laws based on Shari'a discriminate against women, as do some secular laws. Under criminal law the punishment for adultery is more severe for women than for men, and men get reduced sentences in "honour" crimes. Sexual harassment is prohibited in law and is rarely reported. The incidence of domestic violence is unknown.

The minimum age for employment is 15 for non-agricultural labour and 18 for heavy work. Minors can work for 6 hours a day, but not at night, weekends or official holidays. Parental permission is required for children under age 16 to work. Children who work in family businesses without pay are not covered by the law. Most minors work in the agricultural sector with their parents. It is reported that 8% of children under 14 work.

Workers have the right to form and join trade unions. Unions are not independent of the government. All unions are members of the General Federation of Trade Unions (GFTU), whose leaders are members of the Ba'ath Party. The GFTU is affiliated to the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions. Collective bargaining is permitted in law. Government representatives are part of the bargaining process in the public sector. Minimum wages and conditions of work in the private sector are determined by public sector unions along with the Chambers of Industry and Commerce and the responsible ministry. Strikes are permitted, but crackdowns on strikers limit such action. Unions do not exist in the free trade zones.

Forced or compulsory labour is illegal, except for prisoners, for whom it is part of their sentence. The public sector minimum wage of US $62 (3,200 Syrian pounds) a month is supplemented by a system of benefits that includes compensation for meals, uniforms and transportation. The private sector minimum wage is US $65 (3,500 Syrian pounds) a month. Wages are normally higher than the established minimum since the latter does not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Second jobs are common. The work week in the public sector is 35 hours and in the private sector 42.5 hours.