The republic of Tajikistan endured a civil war from 1992 to 1997 which led to some 400,000 ethnic Russians fleeing to Russia. A central government was formed in 1997 followed by elections in 1999. Some political stability has returned, and elections for the presidency and for parliament were held in 2005 and 2006 respectively. These elections did not meet international standards but were reported to be an improvement on earlier elections. Some opposition parties boycotted the elections, others were banned. In the 96-seat Parliament there are 11 women in the lower house and 5 in the upper house, as well as 2 Uzbeks and 1 Kyrgyz representing those minorities. The judiciary is independent in law but is reportedly subject to pressure from both the executive branch and criminal networks. The President appoints and dismisses judges with the consent of Parliament.

Discrimination is prohibited on the basis of race, gender, disability, language or social status but is reported to occur against a number of groups. The country is a secular state with Islam as the majority religion. Respect for traditional Islam is encouraged, but radical Islam is viewed as a threat to national security.

Security officials are accused of torture to coerce confessions, and impunity is a problem. Corruption and nepotism are pervasive, and the government has indicated it will take steps to counter corruption.

Freedom of speech and of the press are guaranteed in law but restricted in practice. Journalists are intimidated and harassed, and the government has strengthened its control over the media. A 5-year prison term can be imposed for insulting the President. An article accusing a professor of bribery brought a sentence of 1 year of forced labour and a fine. Journalists claim government officials limit access to information. Some Internet sites are blocked.

Tajikistan is a source and transit country for trafficking in persons, which is illegal but commonplace. Officials are accused of facilitating trafficking in women and children and, apparently, newborns. Women are trafficked for sexual exploitation; men and boys for labour. Debt bondage is also reported. International cooperation has been organised to repatriate trafficking victims.

A deterioration of the public school system is reported. School teachers supplement their meagre salaries by working in agriculture or selling goods at local bazaars. Tajikistan now has a situation where the younger generation is less skilled than the previous one. Total public expenditure as a percentage of GDP is reported at a very low 2.8% in 2005. Education is compulsory, free and universal to age 14, but the law is not enforced.

Many children enrolled in primary and secondary schools attend only intermittently because they work. Girls work at home or in the fields. Government statistics claim that 99% of children attend school, but the World Bank estimates attendance at about 85%. The UN Development Programme reports that general secondary enrolments roughly halved between 1989 and 2001.With the decline of public schools, boys are sent to Egypt, Turkey, and Pakistan to receive free education in madrassas.

Foreign governments support school meal programmes. 30% of children are reported to suffer from malnutrition. Private Arabic-language schools operate, ¬but restrictions on Islamic instruction remain in place. Government printers cannot publish texts or religious literature in Arabic except for copies of the Koran. Hijabs are banned in schools, colleges and universities. Women students and teachers have been expelled or dismissed for wearing a hijab.

A 3-year programme begins at age 4. The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) is 7%. All 4,598 ECE teachers are women. The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 14 : 1.

Education is compulsory for ages 7 to 14. Primary school begins at age 7 and continues for 4 years. The NER is 97% (48% female). Of students who enrol in Grade 1, 99% reach the last grade of primary school. There are 32,078 primary teachers (64% female), of whom 84% trained. The PTR is 22 : 1.

Secondary education begins at age 11 and is completed in 7 years. 14% of students in upper secondary education study in technical vocational programmes. The NER is 79% (86% of boys, 73% of girls). There are 61,792 secondary teachers, and 92% are trained. The PTR is 22 : 1 in lower secondary and 8 : 1 in upper secondary education.

108,456 students (25% female) study in tertiary institutions, for a Gross Enrolment Rate of 16%. Foreign students studying in Tajikistan come from Asia (1,618), Central and Eastern Europe (304), the Arab States (18) and Latin America and the Caribbean (1). At the same time, 2,233 Tajik students are studying abroad, mainly in the Russian Federation (708), Kyrgyzstan (641), Turkey (265), Kazakhstan (132) and the USA (117).

Discrimination is reported in education and in other state services. Institutions and medical facilities for persons with disabilities are in place, but funding is inadequate and conditions are poor. Disabled children of pre-school age are not admitted to ECE programmes but are referred to special institutions. About 160,000 disabled children of pre-school age are reported to be awaiting assistance. Only 4.6% receive medical assistance and rehabilitation.

The Ministry of Education runs 52 residential schools for orphaned children, children from single-parent families, children without family care and children from poor families. Special schools and colleges for disabled children and youth are reported to be in very poor condition. Some disabled children are in regular schools but without the necessary support, many others at home, isolated from society. The law provides for children with disabilities to enrol in specialised secondary and higher education institutions, but the law is not enforced. Quotas for hiring of disabled persons are not followed.

Legislation grants asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, and the government has established a system for providing such protection. In practice, the protection provided is poor. The government does not fully cooperate with the UNHCR, which has been denied observer status in the Refugee Status Determination Commission. Afghan refugees claim harassment and intimidation and say they are charged illegal registration fees and forced to pay bribes and fines to police who accuse them of being Taliban or members of banned extremist groups. Refugee children are in need of support and care,

About 25% of Tajikistan's population is ethnic Uzbek. Ethnic Russians are another important minority group, but many fled during the civil war. Some returned after the signing of the 1997 peace accord, but in general minorities are declining as a percentage of the population. Poor living conditions make life increasingly difficult for everyone, but especially for Tajikistan's ethnic minorities, who suffer marginalisation. Ethnic Uzbeks have little political power, and a strong anti-Uzbek sentiment is said to be condoned by the government. Murders of ethnic Uzbeks remain unsolved. Uzbek-language elementary education is available, but few Uzbek-language television and radio broadcasts.

Direct censorship is no longer standard practice in Tajikistan, but authorities on occasion still prevent certain material or publications from being printed. Reports indicate this is applied more to journalists than to academics.

Equal pay for work of equal value is legislated but not enforced. Women's rights in marriage and the family are protected in law, but discrimination is reported. Inheritance legislation is not discriminatory, but property usually passes to sons. Girls are reported to face pressure to marry against their will. Polygamy is illegal but takes place. The Council of Islamic Scholars of Tajikistan issued a fatwa against women who pray in mosques that do not have separate facilities for men and women. The government supported the fatwa, while expressing concern over the separation of church and state.

Sexual harassment is prohibited but is reported to occur, and the social stigma stops victims from filing charges. Fewer educational opportunities and increasing poverty have reduced the opportunities for women to achieve economic independence. Reports continue to cite abductions of young women who are raped and forced to marry their abductors. Violence against women is widespread and is rarely reported or investigated. Trafficking of women is a serious problem. Some local government departments are reported to refuse internal identification documents to women who refuse to be photographed without their hijab, and lack of documentation denies access to benefits.

The minimum age for employment is 16, though with local trade union permission children may work at age 15. Children under 18 may only work 6 hours a day or 36 hours a week. However, children aged 7 may work in the household or in agricultural labour with their family. Many children under 10 work in the informal sector. There is no national action plan to deal with the worst forms of child labour. Unions can report violations of child labour legislation but rarely do so.

Most children who work do so under the family assistance exception in the legislation. The practice continues of closing secondary schools and universities to have students harvest cotton. 40% of the cotton crop is picked by students. The World Bank reports that 1 child in 8 works full time. Trafficking of children is reported as common.

Workers have the right to form and join trade unions, and about 90% of the work force belongs to unions affiliated to the independent Federation of Trade Unions of Tajikistan. Collective bargaining is permitted, and some 90% of workers are employed under collective contracts. The right to strike is guaranteed.

Forced or compulsory labour is illegal except as defined by law but reportedly occurs. Former collective farm workers are still required to pick cotton, although state farms are now private. Workers receive neither the wages nor the benefits once provided for collective labour.

The minimum wage is US$3.90 (12 somoni) a month, which does not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The World Bank estimates that 64% of the population lives below the poverty line of US$1 a day (2.78 somoni). Some subsidies are provided for minimum wage workers and their families, but these are often payments in kind. The standard work week is 40 hours.