The President of Uganda, Yoweri Museveni, (National Resistance Movement - NRM) is both Head of Government and Head of State and has been in power since 1986, through successive elections. The President appoints the Prime Minister and is Commander-in-Chief of the army.

On 18 February 2011, Uganda held its fourth presidential and parliamentary elections since Museveni came to power. Seven opposition candidates stood for election, including the leader of the main opposition party, the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC), Kizza Besigye. On 20 February, the Electoral Commission declared Museveni the winner with 68% of the votes; Kizza Besigye was second with 26% of the votes.

There are 35 registered political parties. Duse to the redistribution of constituencies, the number of members of the new Parliament elected in February 2011 rose from 332 to 376, including 112 seats reserved for women, 10 special seats for the military, five for young people and five for persons with disabilities.

The Judiciary is independent according to the law, but the President has extensive powers of judicial appointment. There are reports of government influence and a backlog of cases due to a lack of resources.

Discrimination on the basis of race, gender, disability, language or social status is prohibited, but it exists in practice against certain social groups. In the north of the country, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) violates human rights with impunity. Civilians are terrorised as retribution for violating various LRA edicts and their homes are attacked, as are schools and camps for internally displaced persons. Whilst the armed conflict has eased in Uganda, the LRA continues to wreak havoc. "Operation Lightning Thunder" was a multinational military operation to capture the LRA leader Joseph Kony and bring him to the negotiating table. It began in December 2008, after J. Kony once again refused to sign a peace agreement with the Ugandan government. This operation triggered off a wave of murders of civilians in reprisals by the LRA until the beginning of 2009. The LRA continues to be active in Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic. Kony asked for negotiations to be resumed in September 2009. Once again, one of his demands was immunity before the International Criminal Court, which has accused him of 33 crimes against humanity and war crimes. Refugees and displaced persons are beginning to return home, but they are faced with food and water shortages, land disputes and failed harvests. This, together with the lack of funds of the World Food Programme, has resulted in a precarious situation for those living in camps and for those who have returned home.

On 11 July 2010, bomb attacks in Kampala left over 70 dead and many injured. The Islamic fundamentalist group Al-Shabaab, in spite of its bases being in Somalia, is also active in other East African countries. The leaders of Al-Shabaab claimed responsibility for the attacks in Kampala and threatened fresh attacks in the region.

There have been violent demonstrations causing considerable loss of life and serious injuries. In April 2011 there were protests against the increase in the prices of basic goods and petrol, with disturbances in Kampala and it suburbs and other Ugandan cities.

A report by Human Rights Watch mentions torture at the hands of the security forces, and the police are accused of being ineffective and corrupt. Opposition activists are harassed and arrested and there are reports of incidents with paramilitary groups.

Corruption within the government is one of the biggest problems. Transparency International puts Uganda in position 127 out of 178 countries, with a score of 2.5 on a scale of 0 to 10.

Freedom of expression and freedom of the press are guaranteed in law, but this is not respected in practice. Harassment and intimidation of journalists results in self-censorship, but articles critical of the government appear at times in newspapers. Radio is the main source of news for 80% of the population. The President threatened to close any press organisation which "threatens national security." Access to the Internet is not restricted.

Trafficking in persons is not specifically restricted in law, and the country is a source, transit route and destination for women and girls trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation and hazardous labour. The LRA abducts children and uses them as child soldiers, sex slaves and porters.

Persons with HIV/AIDS suffer discrimination, although awareness campaigns have been launched to remove the stigma attached to the disease. HIV/AIDS tests and counselling are free. Education International and UNATU, the education trade union in Uganda, implement training programmes for teachers on HIV/AIDS prevention through education. Suitable materials have been developed for use in schools.

In January 2011, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) energetically denounced the assassination of the well-known defender of the human rights of homosexuals, David Kato. The body expressed its great concern and sadness at the crime and urged the Ugandan government to conduct a thorough investigation of this attack on fundamental guarantees. It also pressed the Ugandan authorities to ensure the safety of its LGTB citizens. David Kato, a primary school teacher, was an outspoken critic of the law against homosexuality in Uganda, which makes relations between persons of the same sex a criminal offence. Around 20 homosexuals were attacked in 2010, whilst another 17 are in prison for their sexual orientation.

At present, 1.5 million or so babies are born in Uganda every year but only one in five minors under five years of age are registered. Registration of a birth is not only a human right but also crucial for the protection of children. It is essential for access to fundamental rights such as health, education or protection from illegal recruitment by armed groups or forces, early marriage or exploitation as labour.

The Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme provides tuition-free education for seven years. Education receives the largest proportion of the national budget but it is not compulsory. 56% of the population are under the age of 18. The UPE programme makes access to education easier, but school materials and other costs are still very expensive for parents. Increased funding for education has helped provide more training for teachers and increased the number of textbooks available. Full implementation of the UPE programme is difficult to achieve, but significant improvements have been made.

Between 2007 and 2009, post-primary education in Uganda saw an increase of some 150,000 pupils around the country. The Universal Secondary Education (USE) policy helped to push up the numbers in the transition from primary to secondary education from 51% in 2006 to 69% in 2007. USE is part of the Uganda Post Primary Education and Training (UPPET) programme introduced by the government. Set up in 2007, the programme seeks to offer options to the growing number of pupils completing primary education who are interested in secondary education. In 2009, the Ministry of Education recruited 1,400 more teachers. As a result, enrolment rates for secondary education rose from 160,000 in 2007 to over 452,000 in 2009, according to data from the Ministry of Education. The government has also introduced programmes to promote education for girls.

Uganda is well on the way to attaining its objective of a 100% enrolment rate by 2015. But looking beyond the actual numbers, there are still some significant challenges to be faced. Additional installations are needed, more qualified teachers have to be recruited, and teaching materials are required, along with management support and supervisory services. Furthermore, fewer than a third of enrolled pupils are really completing the school curriculum. Statistics from the Ministry of Education show that only 30% of pupils who started primary school in 2003 sat the end-of-primary examinations in 2009. Another challenge is classroom size. The increase in enrolment brought about by the UPPET programme has resulted in a critical reduction of spaces in classrooms. In 2007, 243 of the 791 schools taking part in the UPPET programme had classroom with over 80 pupils.

A two-year programme begins at the age of four. At this level, all education is private. The net enrolment rate (NER) is 3%. 77% of teachers have a suitable training (56% of men, 81% of women).

Education is not compulsory but is available for children aged between 6 and 12. Primary education begins at the age of six and lasts for seven years. 50% of pupils are girls. At this level, 1% of education is private. The gross enrolment rate (GER) is 122%. Of pupils enrolling for the first grade, 41% reach the last grade of primary. 14% of pupils repeat grades. 143,247 teachers (39% women) work at this level of education and 80% are properly trained. The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR) is 49:1.

Secondary education begins at the age of 13 and lasts for 6 years. The NER is 34%. There are 34,016 secondary school teachers (22% women) and 82 have received appropriate training. The PTR is 18:1 in secondary education.

123,887 students (44% female) are studying at tertiary institutes, with a gross enrolment rate of 4%. At this level, 10% of education is private. 2,454 Ugandans are studying abroad, particularly in the UK (885), the US (696), Germany (121), India (93) and Tanzania (82).

Discrimination against persons with disabilities in education or in other State services is prohibited, but the law is not strictly enforced. Widespread social discrimination is reported and educational opportunities are scarce. Five seats in Parliament are reserved for representatives of persons with disabilities. Legally, Uganda is committed to integrating children with disabilities into mainstream schooling, and the President has acknowledged the equal right of children with disabilities to be educated, but studies warn that without additional resources and special needs training Uganda will not be able to meet the educational needs of disabled children. With the implementation of the Universal Primary Education programme, the number of disabled pupils in schools has increased. Overcrowded classrooms, a lack of specialised teacher training and a shortage of textbooks and teaching materials make it very difficult for teachers to cope with the new challenges. A lack of transportation prevents children with physical disabilities from reaching school. Given the huge number of students in each class, teachers find it very difficult to give the attention required to special needs pupils.

The law does not provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 protocol, but the government has established a system for the protection of refugees. The government cooperates with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organisations is assisting refugees and asylum-seekers

Uganda has 238,000 refugees from southern Sudan as well as refugees from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda. In July 2010, Human Rights Watch reported that the Ugandan authorities forcibly repatriated at least 1,700 Rwandans who were living in a refugee camp in Nakivale. The refugees were called together on the pretext that they were going to be given food but they were forced to climb onto trucks. At least three tried to flee and died in the attempt.

In 2011 the UNHCR introduced a plan to facilitate access to education for refugees and asylum-seekers of school age from numerous neighbouring countries in a conflict situation, paying special attention to women and girls, by extending and rehabilitating the existing educational infrastructures in the refugee camps in Nakivale, Kyaka II and Oruchinga, providing materials and equipment to allow the development of teaching activities in decent and appropriate conditions, making families and teachers aware of the importance of the education process, and offering support to particularly vulnerable girls and adolescents.

Violation of the rights of the Acholi, Langi and Ateso ethnic groups is reported. As a result of this violence there are more than 1.4 million internally displaced persons, most of them women and children. The security forces severely restrict their freedom of movement, and night-time curfews are imposed in many camps. The government's education policy for refugees enables them to benefit from the Universal Primary Education programme. The Ugandan government and the UNHCR fund the programmes. Some secondary vocational education is open to refugees and foreign governments help to fund refugee education.

There are reports that security of tenure, which is a prerequisite for academic freedom, is increasingly threatened by higher education reforms. There is great concern at the increase in non-tenured positions. Teachers who have to renew their contracts are more vulnerable to censorship and self-censoring.

Uganda's National Constitution establishes gender equality and affirmative action in favour of women and prohibits gender-based discrimination. However, enforcement of these laws is slow and irregular. The National Gender Policy recommends the gender perspective as a strategy to address gender imbalances. Women's organisations denounce the fact that the objective behind the passing of these laws is to try to gain access to the international resources available.

Cultural practices include Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), which is not illegal, early marriage, and appropriation by the husband's family of the property of widows and orphans. The prevalence of domestic violence is estimated at 57% and sexual violence at 61%. In most cases violence against women is committed by their partner. Reliable statistical data on domestic violence are scarce. 24% of women say that their first sexual relationship was forced or against their will. The custom of buying a bride, which is still widespread in Uganda, is used to legitimise domestic violence against women. The price paid by the man to the parents of the bride is not refundable, so the woman is considered to be merchandise for which he has paid. Despite the recommendations by women's groups, the constitutional reforms did not abolish this practice of buying a bride.

A report by Human Rights Watch describes the frequent abuses and discrimination suffered by disabled women and children in the north of the country at the hands of outsiders, neighbours and even members of the family. The women interviewed for this report said that they could not obtain basic supplies such as food, clothing and shelter in the camps for displaced persons or in their own communities.

Women perform the majority of agricultural tasks but only own 7% of the land. The World Bank calculates that 80% of unpaid workers are women. Employers are accused of not complying with the law laying down the right to maternity leave.

Customary law obliges women to meet stricter requirements than men in the presentation of evidence in divorce cases in order to obtain custody of their children. Polygamy is legal under customary law and Islamic law. Human Rights Watch maintains that social and legal difficulties prevent women from protecting themselves against HIV/AIDS in forced relations.

The law prohibits sexual harassment, but reports indicate that it is a problem because the law is not strictly enforced.

Reports also mention a growing traffic in women and girls.

The minimum age for employment is 18, but children aged between 12 and 18 can be employed in light work. Child labour is common in the informal sector. Many children work in agriculture or domestic service. Some work in order to buy school materials, and many orphans have to work to survive. The law prohibits children from working in any activity likely to be detrimental to their health, education or mental, physical or moral development. But the ILO estimates that about 2.7 million children are employed. Forced and bonded labour for children is illegal, but as with other legislation this law is not properly enforced. A National Steering Committee on Child Labour has been set up to address this problem. The Orphans and Vulnerable Children Policy provides some social services for children working in the worst forms of child labour.

Workers have the right to form and join trade unions, except for workers employed in what are classed as essential services. The proportion of unionised workers is very low. Collective bargaining is permitted but is not regularly practised, and employers often ignore the requirement of collective bargaining with the trade unions. The right to strike is provided for in law.

Forced or compulsory labour is prohibited, but is reported to occur nonetheless. Prisoners are forced to work on farms and building sites, whilst prison officers are reported to supplement meagre wages with crops grown by prisoners. Juvenile prisoners are reported to work 12 hours a day.

In 2010 the ILO expressed concerns about the lack of respect for trade union rights on the part of the authorities and employers, arguing that this could help discourage foreign investors. Workers in the public sector are still denied the possibility of negotiating their wages or employment conditions. Although labour legislation has improved in relative terms, compulsory arbitration still prevails. No public service union, including medical and teaching staff, can negotiate pay or employment conditions since these are determined by the government.

At a meeting with the Ministry of Labour in September 2010, the Central Organisation of Free Trade Unions (COFTU) expressed its serious concerns at the ill-treatment suffered by workers on the part of foreign investors.

State of the World Population 2010. "From Conflict and Crisis to Renewal: Generations of Change" UNFPA, November 2010, www.unfpa.org (English)

www.hrw.org

Corruption Perceptions Index 2010, World Classification, Transparency International, October 2010, www.transparency.org

UNAIDS, www.unaids.org

Human Rights Watch, www.hrw.org

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - UNHCR, www.unhcr.ch

"As if We Weren't Human": Discrimination and Violence against Women with Disabilities in Northern Uganda

Annual Report on Violations of Trade Union Rights 2010, International Trade Union Confederation, July 2010, www.itc-csi.org