The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy governed by a democratic, multi-party parliament. Executive authority is vested in the monarch but is exercised through the Cabinet. In Britain the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy governed by a democratic multi-party parliament. Executive Power is held by Queen Elizabeth II (who has been on the throne since 1952, one of the longest reigns in British history) but is exercised through the Prime Minister and his/her Cabinet. The Queen is also head of the Commonwealth of Nations (Commonwealth) and the Church of England (Anglican)

The position of Prime Minister is held by the Member of Parliament who receives most votes in the House of Commons, normally the leader of the political party with most seats in the House. In the general elections of May, 2010, the Conservative Party won, and its leader, David Cameron, is currently Prime Minister.

Parliament comprises the House of Commons, which is elected, and the House of Lords, which is appointed, and the term "government" is used to refer exclusively to the executive branch. The party achieving a majority of seats in the House of Commons forms government for a 5-year term. Other elected bodies are the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly, which assume competences such as education, health, and economic affairs. Out of 650 seats, 143 are held by women in the House of Commons (22%) and 147 of the 733 in the House of Lords (20.1%)

The law provides for an independent judicial authority, and in practice the Government generally respects judicial independence. People accused of crimes enjoy the presumption of innocence. Criminal proceedings must be public, except in children's courts and in cases concerning public morals or security. In trials involving the Official Secrets Act, the judge can order the case to be held behind closed doors, but the verdict must be made public.
The Government resulting from the 2010 elections is a coalition between conservatives and liberal democrats. It announced that its first priority was reducing the public deficit. In June 2010 an emergency budget was presented, and budget cuts of 7.2 billion euro were announced. It was also announced that 50,000 public sector jobs would be lost, most of which would be of people reaching pension age and not being replaced. After the 2004 university reform and the introduction of university charges, students racked up considerable debt. Many intended paying off their debts on getting their first jobs, something no longer within the reach of all. This fact partly explains the student mobilisations that shook English universities. Another serious problem is the situation of the near 2.5 million pensioners who lost part of their income when the pension fund system based on investing on stock markets was severely hit by the economic crisis.

Discrimination on the grounds of race, nationality, sex, sexual orientation or disability is banned, but incidents of discrimination still occur. The prolonged detention of foreign persons suspected of terrorism who cannot be deported for fear they will be tortured in their countries of origin is a controversial issue that continues to raise debate and protests from human rights organisations.

Freedom of expression and press is guaranteed by law, and is generally respected. The press is independent and active. Access to information held by public authorities can be requested, and appeals lodged if the request is denied. Internet access is not restricted.

The human rights movement has published reports criticising police procedures, military personnel in relation to detainees, prison overcrowding and the inadequate infrastructure of prisons.

The final report of an official inquiry published in March 2010 stated that the UK Borders Agency (UKBA) did not have "appropriate procedures in place for investigating the abuse of asylum seekers".

Human trafficking is illegal, but the United Kingdom is a point of origin, transit, and destination of trafficking in persons for the purposes of sexual exploitation. Men, women and children are victims of trafficking for the purposes of labour exploitation in domestic service or in catering. Victims of trafficking can apply for asylum and, if they obtain "exceptional leave to remain" can gain access to state benefits for housing, education and health care.

Education is free, universal and compulsory up to the age of 16, and continues to be free up to the age of 18. The enrolment ratio is very high. Teachers' unions emphasise the need for schools to receive specific help in the most difficult areas, to improve resources for hiring and retaining teachers, and to reduce the numbers of pupils per class, none of which is guaranteed in trust schools or academies. The Department of Education has been working to develop a coherent national qualifications system and school curriculum. Concerns have also been raised about the possibility that the International Baccalaureate will lead to the new certificates being considered second class. Most state schools provide religion classes for Protestants and Catholics; there are also state schools for Jews, Muslims, Sikhs, as well as Greek Orthodox schools.

In January 2011, the Government announced an education reform plan that will supposedly give schoolteachers more powers to "discipline" pupils, including powers to search them in the classroom and seize their mobile phones. The Labour opposition described the proposal as a return to the 1950s. The Education Act announced by the Secretary of State for Education, the Conservative Michael Gove, was presented as an improvement in standards in schools, and for eradicating "bad behaviour" in classrooms. This move means that schools will have the final say on whether to expel a pupil and the process will be made easier if, in the opinion of the authorities, the "bad behaviour" is reiterative. Chris Keates, the General Secretary of NASUWT, an EI member, claimed that the act "has all the hallmarks of being conceived by power-junkies."

The new ruling will grant more power to head teachers so that it will be they - and not the local education authorities' who make decisions on dismissal of under-performing teachers. Under the new law all schools will be assessed based on the number of pupils who achieve good results in the final secondary-level exams in five subjects: English Language, Maths, Sciences, a foreign language, and one of the humanities subjects.

The new Education Act also includes a clause which will force university students to pay higher rates of interest to pay off loans for their studies. The Government pointed out that the clause must be passed before implementation in 2012 of the new system of university financing, which will entail a tripling of university fees to 9.000 pounds (about $14,500 ), and which has caused widespread student protests. As from 2012, graduates from English universities who earn more than 41,000 pounds ($65,000) a year, will have to pay off their debts at 3% interest plus annual inflation.

The 3-year program begins at age 3. At this level, 7% of education is private. The Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) is 73%. There are 44,247 ECE teachers (97% women). The number of pupils per teacher (PTR) is 24: 1.

Education is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. Primary education begins at age 5 and lasts for 6 years. At this level, 5% of education is private. The NER is 100% (49% girls). There are 262,390 primary teachers (81% women). The PTR is 17: 1.

Secondary education begins at age 11 and lasts for 7 years. At this level, 56% of education is private. 69% of secondary pupils study technical training programs. The NER is 95%. There are 483,845 secondary teachers, 147,500 (59% women) in the lower levels and 336,345 (60% women) in the upper. The PTR is 16: 1 at lower secondary and 20: 1 at upper.

2,415,217 students (57% female) are studying at tertiary institutions, giving a gross enrolment ratio of 59%. At this level, all education is private. Foreign students studying in the United Kingdom come from North America and Western Europe (15,369), Central and Eastern Europe (3,525), Asia (1,864), Latin America and the Caribbean (1,575), Sub-Sahara Africa (1,315) and Arabic Countries (1,272). At the same time, 23,524 British students study overseas, particularly in the USA (8,439), France (2,611), Germany (2,154), Ireland (2,132) and Australia (1,652).

Early intervention is recommended to ensure children with learning difficulties receive the support they need as early as possible and for children with special needs or disabilities to gain access to appropriate education. Government policy is to eliminate barriers to learning and embed integration into schools from an early age. Concern is raised that there are not sufficient services and support in place to integrate these children into the mainstream system, and that integrated education requires a wide range of services.

Universities also have a duty to involve persons with disabilities in developing good practices and are recommended to consult staff unions.

Legislation bans discrimination against persons with disabilities at work, in education, access to health care, and other public and private services. It requires buildings to be provided with access for persons with disabilities, and the Government, in practice, ensures effective compliance with the requirement. Legislation requires all public service providers (except in the transport sector) to make "reasonable adjustments" to ensure services are accessible to disabled people. The law bans employers from harassing or discriminating against job seekers or employees with disabilities. A government commission provides legal advice and a telephone line is available for persons with disabilities. Official inquiries can be held, conciliation arranged, and requirements can be issued to adopt plans of action to guarantee compliance with the law and to demand action to prevent discrimination.

Legislation provides for granting asylum or refugee status, and the Government has established a refugee protection system. The Government has placed the burden of proof on asylum-seekers arriving from "safe countries" or who have stayed for a certain length of time in another country before requesting asylum. The law allows for asylum-seekers to be sent to another country if it is considered that that country should attend to the request for asylum.

In practice, the Government provides protection to persons whose lives or liberty may be at risk because of their race, religion, nationality, or by belonging to a determined social group or political leaning. However, in November 2009, Amnesty International asked European governments not to return asylum-seekers to Iraq on account of the lack of security there. The HR organisation claimed that in November of that year the British, Swedish, and Norwegian Governments returned 50 Iraqis to their country of origin. The Government can also provide temporary protection under the categories of "humanitarian protection and discretionary leave" for people who fail to meet the conditions required for refugees. However, at the end of 2009, the most recent year for which there are data available, according to UNHCR the Government did not provide sufficient protection for these persons. In February 2010, Human Rights Watch claimed that the country's "fast track" system for handling asylum requests "is not sufficiently robust for complying with basic standards of justice," particularly for women. HRW said that the system did not allow women enough time to gather proof to support their claims that they are fleeing from abuse, and asked for substantial changes in the system.

Despite racial discrimination being illegal, people of African or Afro-Caribbean, South Asian or Middle East origin, along with travellers and Roma, are victims of discrimination and on occasions victims of attacks by far-right or radical nationalist groups.

Academic freedom is normally respected throughout the United Kingdom, but concern is raised over general trends which open the door to infringements of academic freedom. The national curriculum and assessment procedures are said to be exerting too much pressure and restricting the use of teachers' professional judgement and limiting the exploration of new areas of teaching. The new anti-terrorism law is also said to be restricting teaching in classes on contemporary politics, Islam, the Middle East and Ireland. Teachers' unions have called for the scope of this law to be limited as regards teachers as they could find themselves involved in legal problems without any intent to glorify terrorism. Scientific education could also be affected, as the crime of "training for terrorism" outlaws teaching how to handle noxious substances if the person "suspects" that the pupil might use the skills to carry out illegal activities. Legitimate forms of training and research are at risk of being criminalised. Another concern for university lecturers in the United Kingdom is the tendency to increase the number of non-permanent positions in higher education. The "security of a permanent position" that provides independence is considered a pre-requisite for exercising academic freedom, but the increase in non-permanent positions means that more and more lecturers resort to censorship and self-censorship to ensure contracts are renewed. Increases in private financing of research projects also raise questions over the risks to which freedom of research is being exposed. A close watch is being kept on issues surrounding the introduction of company criteria both in the management of research and in access to the research findings and control over them.

Under the law it is a crime to carry out, or help another person carry out, female genital mutilation, both within the country or abroad. Rape, including rape within relationships or marriage, carries a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. However, violence against women is still a problem. According to a survey on crime in Britain (BCS), in 2009-10 the police recorded 43,579 sex crimes. The great majority of these crimes were committed against women. The Government acknowledged that the conviction rate of 6% is too low. The law provides for personal protection orders and exclusion orders (suspension of the right to live in the family home) in cases involving women who are victims of violence. Refuge, advice, and other kinds of assistance are provided for victims of abuse or rape, and free legal assistance is given to women who are financially dependent on their abusers. The Government runs 29 care centres for victims of sex attacks. It is a cause of concern for NGOs that some police officers are not appropriately trained for identifying when women are in need of protection and for responding adequately. Attacks by persons with AIDS, HIV, Hepatitis B and other sexually transmitted diseases carry a maximum sentence of 30 years' imprisonment.

There have been instances of so-called "honour crimes" among families of Asian, Turkish, Algerian and Nigerian origin. Forced marriage continues to be a concern, but there are no reliable figures on the extent of the problem. The law defines forced marriage as a crime, and, if it is accompanied by deceit, it is treated as abduction. The law also provides for annulment of marriages held in other countries against the will of either party. A person must be at least 21 years old to apply for a visa for his/her spouse, and potential sponsors of a visa of this type must register their intent to apply for the visa before travelling abroad. The authorities believe that a large number of young women travel abroad on what they think are holidays to their country of origin and are later pressured into marrying and applying for a visa for their spouse. The law requires that schools, social services and police receive training on this issue and learn how to deal with it.

The law bans sexual harassment and establishes prison sentences of up to five years. Couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly on the number of children they have, and have access to information and means to take such decisions free of discrimination, threats and violence.

Women enjoy the same legal rights as men, including family and property rights, and rights within the judicial system. In practice, however, women suffer some discrimination. The World Economic Forum estimates that women in the United Kingdom earn 67 per cent relative to what men earn.

It is illegal to employ children under 13 years of age. Children between 13 and 16 years old can work under certain conditions: they must obtain a work permit from the local authorities, they cannot work in industrial companies, they have a limit on work hours, and their work must not interfere with their school-work, unless the work is part of an outside-school educational course. According to some NGOs, 2 million school-age children have part-time jobs. Traffickers bring children into the country to work in the unregulated sector. The armed forces accept recruits at 16 years of age, but they cannot take part in active operations until they are 18.

The law protects children from exploitation at work and, in general terms, the authorities apply these laws effectively. However, there were reports that foreign, unaccompanied children - arriving, in particular, from China - have been the victims of sexual exploitation and forced labour. Organised criminal gangs subject children, many of them from Vietnam and China, to debt servitude . Children under 16 are not allowed to work in transport or in street vending; their work hours are strictly limited and the job must not interfere with school attendance. The health, commerce, industry and education departments have responsibility for regulations concerning child labour. Reports from social workers and NGOs, however, point out that many children work longer hours than those permitted by law. In other instances, children have been found working illegally in restaurants, farms, factories, in cleaning and other poorly-paid jobs in the service sector, working long hours under precarious and unsafe working conditions. Many of these children do not attend school. These issues disproportionately affect migrant children.

Workers have the right to join and form unions, without prior authorisation or excessive requirements (with the exception of armed forces, public sector security personnel and police) and in practice workers exercise this right. Approximately 26% of the work force is unionised. Union membership is more widespread in the public sector, where almost 60% of workers are union members. But only 17% of private sector workers are unionised, concentrated mainly in the industrial, transport, and distribution sectors.

The law provides for trade unions to go about their activities without interference, and, in practice, the Government protects this right. Workers are entitled to strike and they regularly exercise the right. Workers' decisions to strike must be taken by secret vote. The law establishes collective bargaining as standard practice. Approximately 35% of workers are covered by collective agreements.

State of World Population 2010. "From Conflict and Crisis to Renewal: Generations of Change" UNFPA, November 2010, www.unfpa.org (Spanish)

The Commonwealth of Nations is an organisation comprising 54 independent countries which, with the exceptions of Mozambique y Rwanda, share historic links with the United Kingdom. The membership of Pakistan was suspended again in 2007 and Rwanda joined in 2009.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), www.unhcr.org

See the US State Department annual report on human trafficking. United States Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report 2010 - United Kingdom, 14 June 2010, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4c1883b92d.html